China 31B. Western Chou: Classic China (1122-771 BCE)

Let us look a little deeper into the transition between the Shang and Chou dynasties.

Traditional history

According to historical legend, Chou Hsin, the last Shang ruler, imprisoned Wên Wang, (literally the ‘Cultured King’), the ruler of the principality of Chou, for protesting against injustice. Wên Wang’s son, Wu Wang, the ‘Martial King’, secured his father’s release. After his father’s death he overthrew the Shang tyrant Chou Hsin with the aid of a coalition of princes and established himself as the first monarch of the Chou dynasty. His brother Chou Kung, the Duke of Chou, ruled as a regent after his brother’s death. He relinquished control to Wu Wang’s son, Ch’eng Wang, the Completing King. Orthodox Chinese historians consider this period ideal. Let us see why.

The ‘Sage Kings of Old’

The ‘sage kings of old’ referred to frequently in Chinese culture are Wên Wang, his sons, Wu Wang and Chou Kung, and grandson, Ch’eng Wang. The idealized behavior of these rulers has had tremendous influence upon the expectations of the Chinese towards their rulers and government, and subsequently the political development of China.

Wên Wang, the Cultured King, an inspirational example of imperial leadership

The patriarch, Wên Wang, was the Cultured King. He was the father of both the Duke of Chou and Wu Wang. Furthermore he championed the rights of the populace by organizing resistance to the last Shang tyrant. According to legend the father, King Wên of the state of Chou, was disturbed by the injustice of the Shang tyrant. Because of this he reluctantly created an alliance of nobles to overthrow the Shang. Because of his efforts he was imprisoned. While in jail Wên Wang composed the I Ching, the classic of Changes, dealing with a categorization and interpretation of life’s changes based upon yin-yang theory.[i] The effort to create a political alliance was inspired by empathy towards the sufferings of the peasantry. His literary effort, the I Ching, was an effort to assist everyone in the understanding of life’s changes. Because of these efforts King Wên is portrayed as the champion of the rights of the common man. Additionally because of his philosophical concerns he is considered the ‘Cultured King’, a title bestowed upon him posthumously. This is why he is rightfully considered a Sage King of Old. Wên Wang’s example has been an inspiration to Chinese leadership. In some ways he is the archetypal enlightened leader that everyone hopes for.

Wu Wang, the Warrior King

Wu Wang, Wên ’s son, finished up his father’s work, by freeing his father and sacking Yin, the capital of the Shang dynasty, becoming the first king of the Chou dynasty. He left Chou princes in charge of the Shang capital and returned to Chou. Shortly after he died, leaving his infant son in charge of the new dynasty. The Chou hereditary tradition was strictly primogeniture like the Normans in Europe. The Duke of Chou assumed control under the regency. Although King Wu’s efforts certainly established the Chou dynasty, his efforts were far overshadowed by those of his brother, the Duke of Chou.

Duke of Chou, Chou Kung

While the accomplishments of the father, Wên Wang, were certainly great, the achievements of Chou Kung, the Duke of Chou, the son, were probably greater still.

First quells insurrection of Shang

The Duke of Chou had been left a fledgling kingdom. The Chou princes in charge of Yin, the capital of the Shang dynasty, with the support of the remaining Shang aristocracy revolted upon King Wu’s death. The Duke of Chou spent the next three years fighting the insurrection. After the fighting ended the highlands and eastern lowlands of northern China were united for the first time.

Establishes 3 major legacies for China

The Duke of Chou left at least three major legacies for China. First he established the feudal system, which came to be the dominant social form under the Chou dynasty for almost 1000 years. Second he originated and propounded the concept of Mandate of Heaven. Third he set the standard of the duties of a good ruler, which included responsibility for the well being of his subjects. Further Chou Kung provided the fundamental inspiration to the incredible influential Confucius as to the possibilities of leadership.

Feudal system

Let us begin our discussion with the Duke of Chou’s feudal system. He instituted this political structure to establish control over a larger part of China. The high western plains of the Yellow River were quite distant from the eastern lowlands of the coast and needed a more efficient political organization to be governed properly.

Evolution

The feudal system begins when allies and generals are rewarded with the political control of provinces in exchange for allegiance, especially in military matters. It continues as loyalty and support are passed down father to son generation after generation. The cooperation that it took to organize militarily to defend or attack is institutionalized into the political system rather than allowing the cooperative energy to dissipate. Of course this military cooperation is for mutual defense or aggression. A military alliance brings the initial success, in defense or attack. This alliance then provides the glue for the following political dynasty. The strength of imperial cooperation is then passed down through multiple generations until it almost becomes genetic. The feudal system has been such a successful political technology that it has been employed in a multitude of different cultural contexts.

Incredibly successful political technology

According to legend the Duke of Chou feudalized China about 1100 BC. This political technology proved so effective that it was the dominant political form in China for almost 1000 years until the ‘First Emperor’ deliberately dismantled it about 200 BC. Some 700 years after China was feudalized, in about 300 BC, Alexander the Great, in Persia and Greece, awarded his generals with political provinces. This eventually led to the formation of the Roman Empire. About 1000 years later in 700 AD Charles Martel, grandfather of Charles the Great, Charlemagne, set up the feudal system in Europe as a network of mutual protection against the expanding Moslem Empire. The feudal system dominated European politics for another 1000 years. It is obvious that the feudal system is an incredibly powerful political technology.

Effective means of dominating Peasantry

Completely effective at dominating peasantry

There were multiple factors behind its success. Ironically it was these same factors that led to its eventual demise. The first and most obvious strength of the feudal system was as a system of mutual defense from external attack. The second positive[ii] element, an extension of the first, was that it allowed for an expanding empire in order to further reward loyal generals and sons. The third and most insidious, factor behind the success of the feudal system was that it proved to be an incredibly effective political technology whereby relatively few members of the military aristocracy were able to dominate the multitudes of the agricultural peasantry.

Feudalism, a Bronze Age phenomenon

This points to a Bronze Age phenomenon[iii]. Feudalism becomes the system whereby the dominant military aristocracy dominates larger amounts of agricultural acreage. First the large amount of land that was cleared by the farmers for agriculture, allowed the development and use of the chariot to dominate their agri-cultures. Then the Feudal system was developed which allowed the invading culture to dominate larger amounts of agricultural land more effectively. The Taoists were right. The farmers in choosing the safe, sedentary, agri-cultural life style planted the seeds for their eventual domination by clearing the land.

Military aristocracy allied against the peasantry

The primary alliance was that of one military culture joining forces with another to defend or attack another culture. In the secondary alliance the military aristocracy joins forces to rule the peasantry. While the feudal system provides a collective defense from the outside, it also provides a more effective means of dominating the peasantry. Indeed throughout history the aristocracy has regularly left differences behind to band against the peasantry.[iv]

Power not prejudiced against power

Unto the 20th century power has not been prejudiced against power. Military dictators worldwide have been supported regardless of race, color, or creed. Indeed collective global force is more frequently applied against peasant uprisings than against military dictators[v]. The military dictators are only threatened if they threaten the global order.[vi]

Feudal Hierarchy effective in military environment

Interestingly this military structuring of society on feudal lines has affected our way of thinking. The best defense or attack in a military situation is to have a single leader who can make quick unchallenged decisions, or can delegate authority to trusted followers as in the feudal situation. While this is the best strategy in a military situation where survival is at stake, it is not the most effective strategy in a peacetime situation, which can allow more latitude. Thus a military posture stratifies the social structure with a military leader at the top of the political structure to facilitate the defense or aggression of the culture. Thus the military hierarchy is established.

Reflected in science by search for ultimates

In scientific terms the hierarchy is reflected in their search for ultimate particles that are building blocks of the universe, or even processes that will describe everything. The spontaneity of reality shatters this hierarchical perspective. Although Newtonian mechanics describes many phenomenon of the universe, there is infinitely more that it doesn’t explain – including that little thing called life.

Reflected by the attitude that the brain is in charge of the body

In mental terms the hierarchy is reflected in the idea that the brain is in charge, the general, the ruler, while the body is the follower, the peasantry, the servant. This manifests in the attempted domination of the body by the mind. This not only occurs in the western mentality but also in Buddhism and Yoga, where the body and its desires are beaten down in meditation practices. These attitudes are contrasted with early Taoism, which subjugated mind to body practices. Later Taoists, under the influence of Buddhism, practiced dual cultivation of body and mind.

Inevitable splintering

In each case where feudalism has been successful the initial loyalty that led to military strength and cohesion, after multiple generations becomes internal conflict and disunity. The same was true in China. While military cooperation worked well initially to overthrow the Shang and establish the Chou dynasty under a feudal system, in the long run, it led to a splintering of the Chou kingdom into separate feudal states. How long can you keep dividing the pie? It is a finite pie.

Peasantry welcomes the Military Aristocracy

To balance this perspective, many times the peasantry welcomed the military aristocracy. The threat of Moslem invasion, followed by the annual raids of the Viking invaders in Europe, threw the European peasantry under the welcome protection of the remnants of the Roman aristocracy, the Frankish chieftains, and those other ruling cultures. In a hostile environment, the military aristocracy makes a lot of sense, especially if the rulers create political stability. Better exploitation than rape and pillage. This was especially true in China, whose rich agricultural lands were easy prey to nomadic raiders. They built the Great Wall to protect themselves from these hostile neighbors to the north. Thus the military might of the Chou dynasty probably created a great amount of security for the agricultural peasantry.

More chance of justice on the larger political levels

Further sometimes there is more corruption and exploitation on the smaller levels of political organization than on the larger. Many times we appeal for justice to the largest levels. The Chou under Chou Kung were probably more just than many of the smaller states that he brought under his control.

Mandate of Heaven

The Duke of Chou’s second legacy, the concept of Mandate of Heaven, was probably in response to the Shang aristocracy.

An Excuse for Legitimacy

Presumably the Shang aristocracy claimed that the Chou were illegally usurping their throne. They, the Shang, were the hereditary and rightful rulers of China. The Duke of Chou responded with his famous argument that the Chou had the Mandate of Heaven. The Shang had offended Heaven by their degeneration into tyranny. Heaven had then given the mandate to the Chou. Reluctantly responding to the call the Chou organized a revolt and overthrew the Shang. Because of their success, Heaven approved.

Concept has dominated Chinese politics

The Mandate of Heaven concept has dominated Chinese politics ever since the Duke of Chou first enunciated it. This differs from the European dynastic succession in that a Chinese ruler can and did come from any class of society to establish control of the government. If he is successful in establishing control then Heaven has granted its approval. Of course the longer the dynasty lasts, the more Heaven approves. The Chinese reason that because the Chou lasted so long Heaven must have approved of their political system. Because the following Ch’in dynasty was so short, Heaven must not have approved of their system. Of course Heaven must have initially approved in that the Ch’in were permitted to gain control of China. Genghis Khan and his heirs used the concept to create their dynasty. The Chinese granted legitimacy to each of their conquerors and included them as legitimate dynasties.[vii] The Chinese were less impressed with royal blood and more impressed with this Mandate of Heaven. If successful then Heaven by definition must approve.

We are the way we are because God made us that way

The ruling class in many societies has used a similar justification.

“I am ruler because God wants me to be ruler. If he had wanted you to be ruler then he would have made you ruler.”

The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages used this argument to support their growth and power. When the Protestants accused them of deviating from the Bible, they did not see it as a problem.

“We have evolved the way we have because God has wanted us to evolve this way. If he hadn’t wanted us to be this way, then he would have made us another way.”

Rulers have responsibility with privilege

However even with the earliest tribes and kingdoms, the rulers while imbued with divinity, also had a great responsibility to the tribe or kingdom. On the tribal level, a leader who wasn’t successful was deposed for survival reasons. On the feudal level, the leader who was unable to provide protection for his subjects was replaced. Hence the Chinese relationship between ruler and subject went two ways, not just one, as it tended to do in European politics. The ruler was given special privileges because he had special responsibilities, not because he had royal blood.

Ancient concept verbalized by the Duke of Chou

Hence the Mandate of Heaven is actually a very ancient, as in old not unsophisticated, concept. Our tribal leader gets the best parts of the hunt because he is the strongest and protects us from harm. But should he fail in his duties to the tribe then he will be replaced with someone who can offer protection. While the Duke of Chou probably didn’t originate the concept of Mandate of Heaven, he was probably the first to eloquently verbalize this ancient concept for the Chinese.

Confucius a follower of the Duke of Chou

Confucius looked to the Duke of Chou as the ideal ruler, the sage-king of old. He based his own theories on the concepts first proposed by the Duke of Chou. Hence the Duke of Chou had a foundational influence upon Confucius, who himself was one of the most influential of the Chinese philosophers. If Confucius is considered the father of Chinese politics then the Duke of Chou must be considered its grandfather.

Stability not freedom

A huge difference between the Chinese and the citizens of the Western democracies is based around the polarity of stability and freedom. The Chinese granted great privileges to their rulers but they demanded political stability from their rulers. Because of the predominantly agricultural nature of Chinese society, social stability is needed to feed the population. The farmers therefore demanded political stability first and foremost to cultivate and sell their crops. Political freedom for the agricultural Chinese is secondary to political stability. Freedom without food is a meaningless concept.

Modern Chinese Communism logical choice

This helps us to understand why the Chinese consolidated under a dictatorial Communist system. Communism has not provided freedom but it has provided the social stability necessary to provide food for one billion people. Remember that the Chinese also consolidated under the early Xia dynasty to control the flooding of the Yellow River. We will see this Chinese tendency to consolidate under a dictatorship after a period of social chaos repeated frequently during the millennia of Chinese history.

Responsibility of ruler, good leadership

Not only did the Duke of Chou ‘talk the talk’ of good government, he also ‘walked the walk’ by being a excellent leader.

Ruler has responsibility for the well-being of his subjects

The Duke of Chou reasoned that because of the Chou success in overthrowing the Shang that obviously Heaven wanted the rulers to govern their subjects justly. Heaven was displeased with the Shang tyranny and pleased with the Chou leadership that had the well being of its subjects in mind. Furthermore he trained the young prince in these precepts. When he came of age, the Duke of Chou relinquished control to him. Evidently the prince did a good job because he is called, Ch’eng Wang, the Completing King.

Spotless in execution of duty.

The Duke of Chou was spotless in executing his duty. First he willingly trained the young prince to replace him. He was not the wicked uncle attempting to seize the control of the growing country by threatening his nephew’s life. He was uncorrupted by power. He willingly relinquished control to someone he had trained. This precedent of willingly relinquishing control was indeed followed by some of the later Emperors. This easy transition of power encourages the essential peace and stability in the agricultural countryside.

Opponents incorporated rather than vanquished

Furthermore, instead of vanquishing and obliterating his opponents, the Shang, he incorporated them in his success. He permitted the Shang to rule the small state of Sung and to continue their sacrifices to their ancestors.[viii] Contrast this with the Aegean's treatment of their fellow Greeks, the Trojans, whom were obliterated from the earth. Or the treatment of the Protestants versus the Catholics versus the Moslems versus the Jews versus the Palestinians, during the long interconnected Middle Eastern and European history. In treating his opponents with tolerance and respect he established a national continuity and pride. The former rulers were not inherently bad, they had just strayed from the path, the tao, of proper government.

Respect for the Mandate of Heaven, backbone of Chinese system

Thus the Duke of Chou in gracefully passing leadership onto his nephew and in treating the preceding Shang rulers with respect and tolerance, set precedents that have reverberated throughout Chinese history. His only requirement of his opponents was that they respect his Mandate of Heaven. This is the dominant spine of the tolerant Chinese politico-religious system, setting everything in order. Anyone can believe anything one wants as long as it does not challenge the political authority. If it challenges the political authority, the retribution is severe.

Summary

In summary the Western Chou is considered classic China. Part of the reason for this is that the first Emperors of the Chou dynasty were such excellent rulers. Because of this they are considered “Sage Kings of Old”. The Duke of Chou was the main hero. He instituted the feudal system in China. He articulated the philosophy of the Mandate of Heaven. He also set the example of the ideal ruler, training his successor in good government and then abdicating peacefully.